Stage Fright

Miguel Barvosa-Martinez ENGL 1301-192 Mooney Essay # 2 Final 2/22/13 Stage Fright I know, first hand, that being onstage about to perform in front of a big audience is not as many expect. I started doing stand-up comedy over two years ago. The first time ever being on stage, I felt nervous. I felt jittery my fingers were shaking, but it wasn't as bad as having my body paralyzed from nervosity. Fear can bring your body some unexpected responses. I had those butterflies in my stomach, like I was weightless, as if I were floating.After my first show I discovered stage fright wasn't a problem. I learned that stage fright will come with unpreparedness, and the lack of repetition. The longer I prepared and the more I practiced my material the better I was off with a successful show. For me to know and be comfortable with my material, I would go over it repeatedly, as if I were at the gym doing sets on the bench press. The more prepared I got myself, the more confident I felt. Performing my skit with my friends sitting in front of me as if they are the real audience helped my preparedness.Others listening to my material gave me a better feel for my jokes. I would have a list, the bad jokes I would cross out the good ones I would circle. I would ask my friends for feedback, I used it as a way to prepare for the real audiences reaction. My ways of preparing for the event were time consuming. The fact that my performance brought a lot of laughs to the audience, I felt like i was immune to nervosity. Additionally, experience tells me that I need to give myself time to gain confidence. I worked on my material, preparing for a long time, for a show that was months away.Its a long and frustrating process, but in the end I felt proud of myself. The confidence I felt when I first went up on stage was impressive. I felt powerful, like a star, making the audience laugh with well-revised and practiced material. Conclusively, preparation is key, as is practice. The more prepared I was, the more confident , and the more guided I was through the show. Stage fright is something that can happen to just about anyone, but from my experience it can be dodged. Just prepare, and practice.

Leadership & Ethics- Research Paper Essay

Introduction With the collapse of major corporations like Enron, Tyco International, WorldCom and the like, corporate corruption and mismanagement has been in the forefront of some of the major issues that corporate organizations have to overcome and manage. With this research paper, my aim is to review and present three scholarly journals that highlight the impact that leadership can play on the ethical performance of an organization. Firstly, in the â€Å"Cultural & Leadership Predictors of Corporate Social Responsibility Values of Top Management: A GLOBE Study of 15 Countries†, the study states, that with the spread of globalization, it has become imperative to understand managerial values that guide their actions. The authors suggest that the three main dimensions of managerial values that are relevant to the study of CSR are: shareholder/owner values where the aim is to maximize profits, stakeholder relations which refers to ethical and positive relations towards employees, consumer groups and the like and thirdly, community/state welfare which is based on the principle of public responsibility. In a more in-depth analysis the study explores the correlation of societal culture factors such as institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism and power distance on the above three managerial values that impacts managerial decision making. Furthermore, the paper proposes that visionary leadership and integrity enhances corporate social responsibility (CSR) values on moral and ethical grounds. Secondly,† The Association Between Ethical Leadership & Employee Outcomes – The Malaysian Case† will help understand the value in gaining employee commitment and trust through effective ethical leadership skills. This article studies the impact of ethical leadership on the employee outcomes in areas such as organizational commitment and trust. A micro study was done on the country of Malaysia which has experienced a tenfold increase in corporate crime over the last 15 years. From the study one gathers that the main reason for such an exponential increase in such crimes is due to fact of the failures on part of corporate leadership to act ethically in their decision making process. Lastly, with â€Å"Leadership Styles & the Moral Choice of Internal Auditors† I will examine how an employee’s self interest and management leadership guides their ethical decision making. This study plays close attention to one set of an organization’s workers – the Internal Auditing professionals, in order to understand the how their choice in making ethical decisions are subjective to various factors , one of them being leadership. The primary viewpoint of this study indicated that an auditor’s decision making is enhanced by the leaders who adopt a standard achievement oriented leadership style and when they see clear benchmarking, fair performance assessment and growth opportunity. In conclusion, this can be held true for any employee within an organization. Hypothesis According to the GLOBE study, there were three main hypotheses that the researches proposed. The first hypothesis testing was split in two parts wherein, they proposed that â€Å"societies stressing institutional collectivist values will have a positive relationship with stakeholder’s relations and community/state welfare CSR values while societies stressing in-group collectivist values will only have a positive relationship with shareholder relations CSR values (Waldman et al).† The second theory states that cultures that have a high power distance tend to have low CSR values (Waldman et al). Lastly, visionary leadership and integrity on part of CEO’s, adds variance to the prediction of followers (stakeholders) CSR values that go beyond the effects of societal cultural values (Waldman et al). With the Leadership and Employee Outcome – The Malaysian Case, the two main hypotheses of the study were based on the notion that â€Å"there was a significant relationship between ethical leadership behaviour and employee’s organizational commitment and, that ethical leadership behaviour was positively associated with employee’s trust in leaders (Ponnu, Tennakoon).† This study aimed to examine the empirical significance of ethical leadership on employee attitudinal outcomes. The main hypothesis of the â€Å"Leadership Styles & the Moral Choice of Internal Auditors† study was to understand the motivational factors that influence internal auditors when faced with ethical dilemmas pertaining to â€Å"spilt loyalty, expectation gaps and conflict of interest (Woodbine , Liu).† The authors proposed that the dependent and independent variables such as â€Å" personal needs strengths, leadership styles, the interaction between needs strength and leadership styles and situational factors impact an internal auditors moral choices when faced with an ethical issue (Woodbine , Liu).† Sampling In the GLOBE research paper the selected firms were picked from diverse sectors such manufacturing, information systems and tourism, however government run and educational institutions were excluded from the sample. Each firm had an average of 500 employees with six or more respondents from each firm. The final analysis was based on the responses of 561 firms from over 15 countries from various regions and a total of 4656 individuals completed the survey. The respondents comprised of CEO’s and several of their subordinates i.e. top executives. The leadership (two variables- vision and integrity) and societal cultural dimensions (three variables – institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism and power distance) were measured using reliability and confirmatory factor analyses. Cronback’s alpha for the above measures ranged from 0.70 to 0.90 for a five factor model. A two factor model was also used however it was not considered to be a good enough of fit. Control Variables such per capita gross domestic product, firms performance, average of age of respondents, average education and average gender, were used to enhance precision of the model (Waldman et al). Mean, standard deviations and correlations amongst the variables were interpreted and a hierarchical regression analysis was used to test the three main hypotheses. All survey items were standardized by country using Z – scores, so as to control potential differences in items scores and rating processes between countries (Waldman et al). Lastly various data collection strategies were put in to play in order to avoid single source bias issues. The Malaysian cross sectional case study was based on the primary data collected from 172 intermediate managerial employees from a wide variety of industries within the corporate sector in Klang Valley, Malaysia. The sample included 77 males and 97 females, age range from 20 to 53 and with 84% of the respondents holding bachelors or post graduate degrees. The data was collected through self administered questionnaires and â€Å"convenience sampling was used in drawing samples ((Ponnu, Tennakoon).† SPSS Version 14.0 was used to analyze the data and test the studies hypothesis. Correlation matrix and reliability analysis was done all variables to determine relationships among constructs and lastly in order to allow for correlation amongst factors,† exploratory factor analysis using principle components with oblique rotations was conducted (Ponnu, Tennakoon).† With the Internal Auditors case study, the sample population description comprised of full time internal auditing jobs with respondents that had at least one year experience with their respective organizations. The study was conducted in Australia and comprised of mailed out questionnaires. The total sample size was 128. The demographics were as follows: 84 males and 44 females, average male age 44 years and average female age of 36 years. Out of the 128 respondents, 48 of them were audit managers of equivalent. Organizations involved in the sampling were government departments, private sector and accounting firms. Statistical methods that were employed included correlation analysis for the dependent variables using a two tailed test and significant relationship amongst the three variables was found to exist and Q-Q plots and detrended normal plots were used to validate normality and reliability. For the independent variables such as leadership styles, growth needs and the like principal component analysis was used. Reverser measurement and regression analysis using stepwise method was used to explore relationships between the variables and in certain instances to test validity of model. Major Results & Findings From the two GLOBE tables listed below the hypothesis that in-group collectivist values results in positive shareholder/owner is unconfirmed. The statistical analysis has confirmed and supported the authors proposal in that institutional collectivism positively predicts stakeholder CSR values, with a positive ÃŽ ² coefficient of 0.13 (P ≠¤ 0.01); power distance is negatively predictive of stakeholder CSR values, with a ÃŽ ² coefficient of -0.20; and that the leadership variables of vision and integrity enhanced CSR values, with ÃŽ ² coefficients of 0.23 and 0.13 respectively and variance of 9% (P ≠¤ 0.01) (Waldman et al). With GLOBE table 2, total variance amongst the three main managerial values are: shareholder/owner dimension equals 22%, stakeholder values is 45% and community/state welfare is 28% with a 5% significance level. Hence the model best suits stakeholder CSR values. The main findings with the GLOBE study are as follows: 1.The authors multidimensional of managerial values with the dimensions of shareholder/owners, stakeholders and community/state welfare values were appropriately construed. 2.The research indicates that manager from wealthier countries are more inclined to favor shareholder/owners values and less likely to consider the welfare of the state or community at large. In comparison, managers from poorer countries feel a greater personal responsibility towards society. 3.Managers from institutional collectivist societies tend to have greater value for the three managerial values while there has been no significant relationship between the two variables for in-group collectivism. 4.In societal cultures that have great power distance, managers tend to devalue CSR values, thus leading to a more manipulative use of power with little consideration given to stakeholders such as employees, customers, environmentalist. This could pose a definite risk for multinational firms in today’s global economy. 5.Organization variables such as CEO leadership in terms of vision and integrity are very likely to account for variance in managerial attitudes and decision making. One of the major recommendations of the GLOBE study is the need for multinational firms to pay close attention to cultural and leadership factors that have a critical impact on management CSR values. For example CSR values and policies of a multinational firm could be strong and this may be due to the home country’s high institutional collectivism and low power distance however managers in a subsidiary country may have weaker stakeholder CSR values as a result of weak institutional collectivism and high power distance (Waldman et al). The resulting scenario could lead to conflicting policies and business practices that can have an adverse effect on multinational firms. This further reiterates the authors’ proposal that in cases such as this, it’s the firm’s leadership values of integrity and vision that help managers look beyond the economic and cultural limitations. In the Malaysian case as mentioned earlier, correlation analysis was preformed to test strength and linear relationship amongst the variables. With the first hypothesis there was a medium positive correlation between ethical leadership behaviour and organizational commitment. The Malaysian Table 1 below shows correlations r = .46 and p < .0 5 and, co-efficient of distribution is 21% of the variance, which can be explained. Hence with the supporting empirical data the research shows that â€Å"high levels of perceived ethical leadership behaviour are associated with higher levels of employee’s organizational commitment (Ponnu, Tennakoon).† As for the second hypothesis, there was a strong positive correlation between ethical leadership behaviour and employee trust. The Malaysian Table 2 below shows correlations r = .634 and p < .0 5 and, co-efficient of distribution is 40% of the variance, which can be explained. Hence with the above results supporting hypothesis 2, it can be safely concluded that â€Å"high levels of perceived ethical leadership associated with higher levels of employee’s trust in leaders (Ponnu, Tennakoon).† Some of the main antecedents to the Malaysian case findings are as follows: 1.If leaders make ethics a cornerstone of all business practices they gain internal organizational fellowship and employees tend to value a more social exchange with the organization rather than an economic exchange. Employees reciprocate these sentiments through organizational behavioral commitment and are â€Å"willing to exert considerable effort in terms of job dedication and job commitment, on behalf of the organization (Ponnu, Tennakoon).† 2.When an organizational leader priortizes the group’s interest first, who does not wish to seek personal gain at the expense of others, who respects the rights of others and treats them fairly; tends to harness employees trust. 3.When leaders empower employees and involve them in decision making processes they not only facilitate employee well being and growth but increases their trust in them as well. With the Internal Auditors case the major findings of the study support Path goal and ERG theories (Woodbine, Liu). As per the table below, internal auditors are motivated to make ethical decisions based on their personal growth needs. Leadership styles play a significant role as well especially Standard achievement oriented approach that encourages individual performance and achievement (Woodbine, Liu). Lastly gender, age and experienced was an important predictor, as female respondents that were younger and less experienced showed less motivation towards making moral ethical choices. Conclusion The GLOBE study has been extremely informative and clearly structured to provide an in-depth understanding of how societal cultural factors and leadership guide managerial values when it comes to decision making within an organization. Some of the key limitations to the study were that the analyses were limited to 15 countries and the surveyed firms did not represent a wide range of industries (Waldman et al). Actual CSR performance was not measured and lastly, due to multiple levels of data to be collected, additional insight could not be gained. The study indicates that even though leadership integrity is a significant and unique predictor of managerial CSR values, it remains to be an under researched variable. This may be due to the fact that leadership integrity is associated with more tangible organizational outcomes such as reductions of business of costs. However, the authors still believe that it a significant factor that enhances managerial decision making and is worth future examination and research. My personal opinion would also include a more directed research towards in-group collectivism in order to find a relationship between individualistic societies and importance of CSR values towards society at large. The study concluded that, organizations that have strong corporate social responsibility values gain the trust of both internal and external stakeholder which in turn solidifies the foundations for an ethical culture. It also states that Neo – charismatic leadership that is guided by the principles of visionary leadership and integrity have a strong impact on an organization’s ethical performance. The Association Between Ethical Leadership & Employee Outcomes – The Malaysian Case† study showed me a direct link between leadership ethical behavior on employee commitment and trust. It empirically proved that unethical leadership can adversely impact employee outcomes that in turn affect organizational performance. I noted related some factors such supervision, leadership honesty, trustworthiness, fairness and care, have an impact on employee perception and outcomes. The key limitations of the Malaysian study as noted by the researchers due to time and budget constraints, was that, convenient sampling may not be representative of the entire population due to insufficient representation of the entire corporate sector of the country and could be subject to self-selection bias; secondly the study could not measure if distance with top/senior management has an effect on employee perception of ethical leadership. Hence lower level employees who have very minimal contact with upper level management may rely more on information based on public opinion then direct leadership experience (Ponnu , Tennakoon). Both authors found that their study although valid and reliable, needed to be border in terms of sample size and area of study in order to fully understand and demonstrate the importance of ethical leadership. It was also suggested that since the research focused on† superior direct relationships â€Å"(Ponnu, Tennakoon) it would be recommended to gather relevant data from lower level employees within the organizational hierarchy. Finally they suggested further research on the relationship between â€Å"employee psychological empowerment and authenticity of ethical leader behavior (Ponnu, Tennakoon)†. As per my personal suggestion further research can be geared towards relating individual organizational commitment and performance. In conclusion to the Malaysian study, the authors state that corporate crime is still rising as a large number of top executives do not see the importance of ethical leadership values in their business operations. Corporate leaders should set an example of strong ethical and moral values in order to earn loyalty and trust of all major internal and external stakeholders. Organizations that have strong ethical leaders and principles are held in high esteem and enable the organization to employ and retain the best human capital available in the market. The case study on the internal audit profession, provided for a keen micro analysis on the personal motivations that guide employees to make moral decisions especially in professions that require a high level of ethical decision making. The limitations of this study as mentioned by the authors included variable identification and measurement, sample size and the use of a far too simple three vignette based model (Woodbine, Liu). Further research in to gender differences and issues that affect one’s ethical and moral decision making ability. Lastly a broader analysis that analysis the organization as whole as opposed to a particular profession would help enhance understanding of the internal motivations that guide moral decisions when faced with ethical dilemmas. The authors also recommend a new variable for research i.e. â€Å"employee religious affiliation† as a possible predictor to moral choices. Even though the authors conclude that codes of conduct and governance systems provide for an internal control mechanism, whistle blowing channels and develop cultures of honesty and accountability, the study strongly suggests that employee’s moral choices are still subject to their motivation needs. Finally, employee’s motivation to making moral decisions can be difficult to predict however they can be encouraged with proper leadership (Woodbine , Liu). All three scholarly articles empirically supported the main objective of this study, which was to reiterate the sound business principle that, ethical leadership lead to the responsible management of business processes and decision making that will in turn help an organization manage its risk of failure as a result of unethical business practices. Works Cited Ponnu, Cyril H., Tennakoon , Girindra. â€Å"The Association Between Ethical Leadership & Employee Outcomes – The Malaysian Case.† Electronic Journal of Business Ethics & Organizational Studies 14:1 (2009). Web. Sept 19th, 2010. Walman, De Luque, Washburn et al. â€Å"Cultural & Leadership Predictors of Corporate Social Responsibility Values of Top Management: A GLOBE Study of 15 Countries.† Journal of International Business Studies 37:6 (2006). Palgrave Macmillan Journals. Web. Sept 19th, 2010. Woodbine, Gordon F., Liu, Joanne. â€Å"Leadership Styles & The Moral Choice of Internal Auditors.† Electronic Journal of Business Ethics & Organizational Studies 15:1 (2010). Web. Sept 19th, 2010.

Fahrenheit 451 Essay

People’s actions and their individual perceptions can influence and develop change in another person’s character. In Fahrenheit 451, by Ray Bradbury, the main character, Guy Montag, makes a complete metamorphosis with the help from his neighbor Clarisse, his wife Mildred, and his boss Beatty. In the beginning of the novel, he despised the whole idea of reading, had no thoughts or questions about his life, and was just going through the motions of life. He changes from a stolid character, incognizant of the activities of his surroundings, to a conscious person of. So enlightened, by the new world he is exposed to, he comes to the realization that there is more life than what meets the eye. There are many stimuli in Montag’s society that help him change. The one who began this new outlook and the one to always leave him thinking deeply about other possibilities and ways to see the world was his neighbor, Clarisse. She was a very positive influence on him even though she was a young, teenage girl. She is classified to be unremarkable and who does the opposite of what the others do. She is also very perceptive and â€Å"[she] like[s] to watch people†¦[and] just wants to figure out who they are and what they want and where they’re going† (32-33). Clarisse teaches Montag to look around him, look at the people for who they really are, and to notice that all of society is brainwashed to thinking about nothing. This is something he had not noticed before. She enjoys talking to Montag, asking him questions about himself, and she loves to talk about the world and it’s wonderful possibilities that others fail to observe. Clarisse helps him look around and distinguish that others are not taking the time to actually see that the† White blurs are houses†¦ [and] Brown blurs are cows†(83) and everyone is just going through life to quickly and not actually looking at anything in detail. Montag never a deep thinker is numb to his surroundings and emotions. He begins to pullout of his complacency as Clarisse gives the gift of clarity and helps him pay attention to what is really important in life, just not what his society tells him to see. Montag’s Wife, Mildred, is a negative influence on him, trying to push him away emotionally and physically. She does not know who she really is and lives in an illusionary world with her obsession of television shows and believing they are real. He is so confused because she tries to ignore it ever happened thinking about all the bad things; â€Å"fire, sleeping tablets, men disposable tissue, coattails, blow, wad, flush†¦ Rain. The storm. The uncle laughing†¦ The whole world pouring down†¦ † (19). After this incident he looks at Mildred in a different light and is someone who he can’t relate to. Another way she separates herself from Montag is through her â€Å"family†, which is a television show. Montag constantly asks Millie â€Å"[if that] family loves [her]†¦ love [her] with all their heart and soul† (83). Her world isn’t based in reality; they are clearly on different paths. Hers is one of illusion and his is becoming that of a totally self-aware person. She blocks everything and everyone out that is around her and lives within the show. Mildred opens Montag’s eyes to the real world and shows him that most people are uncaring and narcissistic. Another influencing character is Beatty, his boss and chief of police who is very knowledgeable. He finds out that Montag has books in his possession and that is when the start of the climax. Beatty is an unintentional influence, meaning he has no idea that he is changing Montag. He pushes and pushes Montag to his limits and Montag rebels. He tries to tell Montag that books aren’t good and that nothing is good about them. â€Å"At least one fireman gets an itch. What do the books say, he wonders. Oh, to scratch that itch, eh? Well, Montag, take my word for it, I’ve had to read a few in my time, to know what I was about, and the books say nothing†¦Ã‚  You come away lost. † (66). Beatty really wants to discourage Montag from books, but it just makes him go in the opposite direction. Beatty helps Montag change for the better without even noticing. Many people influence us in our lives. They can be positive influences, or negative influences. Montag changes for the better in the novel Fahrenheit 451, because of the people around him. At the end of the book, after he escapes the authorities, he is reborn into a whole different person. He becomes a better person aware of the real things in life.

Rhetorical Criticism I Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Rhetorical Criticism I - Article Example While the people at the end are well dressed with the right fire fighting gear, the person between them is naked. The information attached requires a person not to be stupid and use condom for protection. This is to show that those who are well dressed are safe but the naked person is in danger of being burnt up by the fire headed in their direction. Similarly, the ad implies that love making with no protection is as dangerous as putting off fire without the right gear. The person engaging this way is therefore stupid and the fire of infections will in turn catch up with them and burn them up. Therefore, the ad has actually played its informative role very well through the analogy created . In the second ad, the ad shows human hands ready to receive the love symbol. Added down there is the statement â€Å"safe love is true love. When he uses condom, he is saying he love you.† This ad underlines the need to receive and share safe love. It thus delivers the message most appropriately, by avoiding obscene scenarios (Andreas,

Critically appraisal and review the provision of pharmacy services in Essay

Critically appraisal and review the provision of pharmacy services in Luton and Dunstable University Hospital - Essay Example UKCPA motivates experts in the medical sectors to benefit the patients or the public through standard health care, workshops and encouraging innovations in health care sector among others (John, 2013). This discourse is about Luton and Dunstable University Hospital’s pharmacy and its comparison with that of Saudi Arabia hospital. Luton and Dunstable University Hospital is situated next to M1 motorway, just between the Luton and Dunstable towns. The hospital can be accessed through the Lewsey road or Dunstable road. The hospital can also be accessed through various bus routes and these are the Arriva and Centre bus routes. Luton is one of the United Kingdom’s largest towns. It neighbors Dunstable and Houghton Regis and it is about 50km in the northern part of London. According to the United Kingdom 2011 census, Luton had a population of about 203,200. This was a 10.2 increase from the 2001 census. Out of the 203,200, 46,756 were below the age of 16, 145,208 were aged between 16 and 74, while about 11,23o were aged 75 and above. The local inhabitants are mainly the Lutonians; however, the presence of some immigrants cannot be assumed. The immigration started in the early 20th century when the Irish and Scottish arrived. The groups were later followed by Afro-Caribbean and Asians. Recently, several immigrants from Eastern Europe found home in Luton and this is enough evidence that the town is comprised of various ethnicities. To go with statistics, Pakistani makes 14.4%, Indian makes 5.2% while Bangladeshi makes 6.7% of the total Luton population (Office for National Statistics, 2012). However, t he whites still remain the majority in the town. According to 2011 UK census, Luton ethnicity comprised of 54.6% whites, 4.1% mixed, 30% Asian or Asian British, 9.8% black or Black British while the rest make 1.5%. There are various religious groups and these include

The Supreme Court case, Commissioner v. Tufts, 463 U.S. 1215 (1983) Essay

The Supreme Court case, Commissioner v. Tufts, 463 U.S. 1215 (1983) - Essay Example The court based its decision on a tax benefits theory. The taxpayer would have received untaxed income as at the time the loan was extended unless the amount of the mortgage shall be deemed to have been realized. The taxpayer would have therefore received untaxed income at that time when the loan was extended and would have been entitled to an increase in his basis in the property for depreciation purposes by the amount of his liability and would avoid taxation upon the ending of the obligation (Watson, 2011). i) The first is the fact that loan proceeds do not qualify as income to a taxpayer because he incurs an obligation to repay the loan at the agreed terms to the creditor. If and when the borrower is relieved of the liability for the loan, the proceeds of the loan will henceforth be included in his income as if he received the cash to satisfy the obligation. It takes us back to point the difference that is apparent when compared to Crane v. Commissioner: 331 U.S. 1 (1947). In this matter the petitioner had sought the Supreme Court‘s judicial review of an earlier decision by the court of appeal on how a taxpayer who acquired property subject to the unassumed mortgage. The taxpayer held the property for some time before selling so encumbered and was to account for taxable gains from the sale proceeds. The Supreme Court held by affirming the decision of the court of appeal that had held that the tax court’s use of equity as a basis for the determination of either a gain or l oss was, therefore, improper. ii) The second fact is that the recovery within a taxable year of a previously deducted item must, therefore, be included in gross income to the extent that it produced a tax benefit in that previous year. Deductions for the purposes of depreciation provide a shelter from tax. Therefore, a taxpayer’s basis in his

GROUPS AND TEAMS IN AN ORGANIZATION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

GROUPS AND TEAMS IN AN ORGANIZATION - Essay Example According to Williams Institute, people believed that there are "right" and "wrong" choices. Coincidently, people make different choices with their personal ethical values. Williams Institute attempts to develop a program in which they assist people and guide them in the process of making ethical decisions. Groups and teams play a vital role in making an organization more productive and also it's concerned in the increase of output of the organization. In an organization it's a collection of individual's goal, objectives, efforts and staying united by interacting with each other and staying together until the task will not be accomplished. Sometimes teams or group would be made temporarily by the organization to achieve or accomplish some task or objective and after the completion of that task; those teams or groups are automatically obsolete. Effective team will not achieve any task if the members of the team don't know the strength and weaknesses of each other as well as the organization. If the teams and groups are nor united or share their skills and knowledge with each other while staying in the organization or performing their functions and activities for the organization that would play a negative role in firm's productivity and its success.

Texting while driving in Miami-Dade County Essay

Texting while driving in Miami-Dade County - Essay Example According to research, it has been noted that a person communicating on his mobile phone has a higher possibility of causing an accident than a drunken driver (Rader, 2008). This essay is a critical evaluation on the threat of mobile telephony on Miami Dade County, with respect to texting while driving. The Miami Dade County was the first to legislate a law banning the use of mobile telephones while driving in Florida, which was passed in the year 2001 (Rader, 2008). According to the ordinance, first time violators were to be awarded a $250 fine or opt to register for a refresher driving course while second time offenders were to receive a punishment of $500. Most importantly, this act recognized the efficiency of these gadgets to communicate in cases of emergency and thus exceptions were made to allow their usage in cases such as reporting on fire, crime, irresponsible driving or other urgent occurrences. However, this law was preempted in 2002 thereby allowing drivers the liberty to decide on when and where to use the distractive gadgets (Rader, 2008). This has been the major setback in the county, which, according to statistics conducted by the Florida Department of Highway Safety and Motor Vehicles, experienced a high rate of accident occurrence of approximately 118 fatal accidents per day in 2008 (Muller, 2010). Every time a bill is introduced for debate to restrict the use of hand held phones either to call or text messages while driving, it is either defeated at the committee stage or it fails completely to gain the support of the legislature, which applies to the whole state of Florida. Furthermore, the state of Florida has a preemption policy which does not allow its local authorities to legislate laws governing or prohibiting distracted driving (Miami-Dade County, n.d). As a result, the prerogative of controlling distracted driving especially

Enterprise Project II Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Enterprise Project II - Essay Example This initial process is only appropriate if the design is a new one. The process starts with a group of 5 artists preparing 5 different design sketches each which can take up to five hours. The sketches will be reviewed by a panel of quality assurance officials. This usually takes 2 days and the panel selects the best 10 designs from the sketches. The sketches are then used to create patterns from the drafts. This process runs through 24 designers who create samples of each design in groups of 8 consisting of large, medium and small standard patterns. This process allows only minimal time for choosing the appropriate pattern of designs to change another for a panel. It is a pitfall for the process because the process ought to get adequate time for changing the design patterns when the panel rejects a particular design. Marking the yarn for cutting is the subsequent phase (Kadolph 78-83). The material passes through eight lines with two machines where purchased strands of dyed yarn on beams is selected according to the color, pressed in the two machines, and marked according to the size to be cut. The material is cut under three cloth cutting machines at the rate of 1660 meters per hour it is then coated with wax and other strengthening solutions. In the next phase, the material is sorted according to texture, design, and size. The material is then arranged according to the required bundle specification. This process is automated and sensors are used to determine the texture of the material. Then, the patterns pass through looms where the fabric is woven according to the specified design and size. There are a total of 300 looms used in this process. After this process is complete, the fabric is superficially heated and treated with a finishing solution. It is then dried and transported to the final inspection unit where it is closely inspected for defects created during production by a team of quality inspectors. Any defective

Role of the Public Relations Professional Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Role of the Public Relations Professional - Essay Example public relations department help increase the customer base of a company and it helps build a better corporate image which indirectly helps the marketing department. This paper discusses public relations and its impact in the corporate world. Public relations activities can either be perform in-house or by an external public relations agency. There are many successful businesses out there in the global economy. These companies may be good at their expertise, but most of them do not have the functional business knowledge to perform an adequate job with specific business functions such as public relations. Due to this business reality public relation agency such as 5W Public Relations exist. 5W is one of the 25 largest public relations agencies in the United States whose goal is to successful deliver their client’s messages to the target audiences (5wpr, 2009). Some of the corporate clients that enjoy the services of 5W are rapper Ice Cube, Barnes & Noble, Harrahs, Nice, Phillips Van Hausen Corporation, and McDonalds. Many of these corporate clients choose to outsource their public relations activities to public relations a public relation agency such as 5W because it more cost effective to contract them than to perform these types of activities themselves. For example in order to be successful with media relation you have good contacts with news and media channels to get media players to participate in your media initiatives. It is much easier for public relation agency to deal with the networking, than for a sole corporation or specific client to do it themselves. Public relations can have a high level of importance for corporation when they get into trouble due to bad corporate action that hurt the brand image of a firm. An example of a company that needed major help from its public relations activities after mishandling its international activities was Nike Corporation. In the late 1990’s Nike got involved in manufacturing activities in developing nation

Direct and Interactive Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Direct and Interactive Marketing - Essay Example The following is a discussion of strategic approaches in relation to the strengths and opportunities that the management seeks to accrue from the business environment. The details further establish the salient use of the variables in rebuilding the supermarkets’ strategic framework. Analyses for Morrisons’ supermarkets Situation analysis in Morrisons Morrisons has competently claimed its position in the U.Ks retail market through the lead in the delivery of quality food and groceries. The supermarket chain has grown tremendously after merging with Safeways Company. Morrisons invested in a total of 32 million pounds for online marketing to ensure prompt approaches to the clientele groups. This investment approach targeted to acquire the stipulated clientele given that the consumer groups were deviating from point-of-sale purchases to placing orders and expecting home deliveries (Vickers, 2013:3). The threat of competition is overwhelming in the UK’s retail market, factors articulated to Morrisons dwindling rate of profitability despite the struggle to retaliate accordingly by offering the best retail services in the UK market ahead of their fellow competitors. In 2011, the month of November, the company’s management evaluated that profitability rates were dwindling along various quarters, and their market leadership was falling under a continued rate of threat. The current forecasts implement that Morrisons’ supermarkets have competitively engaged in a recovery program to recuperate and yield profitability (British grocery market, 2012:4). The company shall possibly achieve the desired market edge through the expected success of the M-Local initiative. Direct marketing in determining market size and trends The strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats determine the rate of profitability in the market segments. Through the analytical approach, Morrisons’ management must determine of the approaches that seem most appropriate to reaching the desired market share. As the company currently holds 10% of the total market share, perceptions are that the management may ensure precise research and development study to ensure that all factors of the product mix favor the outlined specifications of prompt delivery of value and satisfaction at a profitable rate to the clientele community of the UK. As Morrisons competes with Tesco, Marks and Spencer, Asda, Sainbury, and Waitrose among others (Vickers, 2013:4). Morrisons held a worrying 10% market share as at November 2012 and situation reflected to the company’s diversification of investments through big stalls and shopping centers while competitors gradually adjusted to direct marketing approaches. The retail stores accrued importance through the purchase of online channels of communication (Dahle?n, and Lange, 2008:144). As rival competitors such as Tesco and Asda lose their market share -43% and due to the discovery that the beef sold in the market contained horsemeat up to 50%, the companies lost accordingly while Morrisons acquired over 20 small-sized stalls. SWOT analysis As the company evaluates of the probabilities of success to prosper and compete with others effectively, the management realized that the reinvestment rate of Asda and Tesco posed considerable threats to competition and success. The competing firms remained threatened by the rate of

Chinas Environmental Issues Essay Example for Free

Chinas Environmental Issues Essay China has many environmental issues, severely affecting its biophysical environment as well as human health. Rapid industrialization as well as lax environmental oversight have contributed to the problems. The Chinese government has acknowledged the problems and made various responses, resulting in some improvements, but the responses have been criticized as inadequate. As of 2012 there is increased citizen activism regarding government decisions which are perceived as being environmentally damaging. (Wikipedia) As China’s economic growth continues to blossom in 2007, with the countries GDP hitting 11. 4%, alongside China gets hit by an environmental crisis. Sixteen of the worlds twenty most polluted cities are in China. Experts say the Chinese government has made serious efforts to clean up and achieved many of the bid commitments. Beijing’s pledge to host a Green Olympics in the summer of 2008 signaled the countrys willingness to address its environmental problems for example. However, an environmentally sustainable growth rate remains a serious challenge for the country. (http://www.cfr.org/china/chinas-environmental-crisis/p12608) China’s major environmental issues: * Water- China suffers from water shortage and water pollution. About one-third of Chinas population lacks access to clean drinking water. s part of its effort to harness the nations water supply, China has a large dam-building program with over twenty-five thousand dams nationwide–more than any other nation. The dam projects are not only a high cost in terms of money, but also in farmland loss, ecological damage, and forced migration of millions of people, says the Woodrow Wilson Centers Jennifer L. Turner, director of its China Environment Forum, in a report for the Jamestown Foundation. * Land- Desertification in China leads to the loss of about 5,800 square miles of grasslands every year, an area roughly the size of Connecticut. The Worldwatch Institute, an environmental watchdog and research organization, reports that excessive farm cultivation, particularly overgrazing, is one of the leading causes of desertification. As the deforestation grows, so do the number of sandstorms; a hundred were expected between 2000 and 2009. Desertification also contributes to Chinas air pollution problems, with increasing dust causing a third of Chinas air pollution. * Greenhouse gases- In 2008, China surpassed the United States as the largest global emitter of greenhouse gases by volume. (Not per capita however) The increase in Chinas emissions is primarily due to the countrys reliance on coal, which accounts for over two-thirds of its energy consumption, contributing to sulfur dioxide emissions causing acid rain.

Theory And Practice Of Strategic Planning For Tourism

Theory And Practice Of Strategic Planning For Tourism It is widely acknowledge that planning is crucial to successful tourism development and management; and planning has been a widely adopted principle in tourism development at both regional and natural levels. Tourism in Europe has been the subject of considerable academic debate and commentary since the political even of 1988-89. The debate has often focused on Central Europe, whose future free market depends on planning especially including tourism. In particular, strategic planning in the region will be critical to the future success of tourism as attempts are made to utilise tourism in the process of planned economic change. The lack of coordination and cohesion within the highly fragmented tourism industry is a well-known problem to destination planners and mangers. Gunn (1988) stated that continuous tourism planning must be integrated with all other planning for social and economic development, and could be modelled as an interactive system. He pointed out that the go-it-alone policies of many tourism sectors of the past are given way to stronger cooperation and collaboration. No one business or government establishment can operate in isolation (Gunn 1988; 272). On the other hand, Inskeep (1991) has pointed out the importance of an effective organisational structure for tourism management and the need for continuous, integrated planning. Achieving coordination among the government agencies, between the public and the private sector, and among private enterprises is a challenging task, however, and requires the development of new mechanisms and processes for incorporating the diverse elements of the tourism system. Countries need to have an idea about where they want their tourism sector to be in the future and the route it is going to follow to get there. If nations do not have a strategic plan for their tourism, then the old clichà © can apply. If you dont know where you are going, how will you know when you have arrived? (Tim Hannagan 1998, p. 120). In this write up, the meaning of both strategic planning and tourism will be analysing, and also analytical argument on strategic planning for tourism will be explored. Furthermore, few example of tourism planning activities will be evaluated to support the subject matter. Thus, what is Strategic planning / Tourism Strategic planning is concern with deciding what business an organisation should be in, where it wants to be and how it is going to get there (Smith 1994). Strategy is the direction and scope of an organisation over the long term, which achieves advantage in a changing environment through its configuration of resources and competences with the aim of fulfilling stakeholder expectations (Johnson and Scholes 2005). Harrison et al (1995). Explain that strategic is about clarifying your mission, setting clear long term objectives and formulating a comprehensive and integrated set of steps to achieve it. Strategic planning then is concern with defining and achieving organisational purpose (Porter 1994). planning is the purposive process in which goals are set and policies elaborated to implement them and is concerned with understanding and explaining the substance of policy content and policy decisions and the way in which policy decision are made. (Barett and Fudge, 1981). On the other hand, According to World Tourism Organisation (WTO) the organisation defines tourism as: the short term movement of people to destinations away from the communities in which they live and work, and their activities during their trip, including travel, day visits and excursions (WTO cited in T. Outhart. et al 2001, p.4) so tourism includes short term travel for all purpose, weather for leisure or business. Furthermore tourism is about the temporary, short term movement of people to destinations outside the place where they normally live and work and about their activities during their stay at these destinations. (Outhart O. Taylor L. 2001, p.6). Tourism development is the planning and ongoing development of destinations, facilities and services to meet the need of current and future tourist. When tourism is effectively planned and managed, tourism development can result in huge improvement and benefits both for visit and tourist and for the local population, therefore the need of strategic planning for tourism in order to meet the desire of people living in the demanding world has to be encouraged so as to promote and attract tourist as well as building their confidence with tourism activities. Tourism planning has also been seen as a way of extending the life cycle of a destination with a view of exploring new opportunities, adaptation to the current market demand and marketing harmonisation and as well forecast for the future. As stated by Clegg (1994), tourism activities comprise the worlds largest industry with over trillion of dollars in revenue produced and the challenges in benefiting from such economic impact is the result of efficient planning that will take into account the preservation and protection of the environment, the enhancement of a community quality of life and development and that will attract not only first-time visitors but also repeaters as a result of building a reputation and be a successful destination. (Inskeep 1991, WTO 1994) in their own contribution to tourism planning and development, they stated that planning is crucial to successful tourism development and management; and planning has been a widely adopted principle in tourism development at both regional and national levels. On the other hand, (Cooper et al. 1993; Shepherd, 1998) argued that poor tourism planning will cause social problems, degradation of the environment, short-term benefit and failure or constraints due to lack of analytical details or miscalculations regarding the control of land usage (Cooper et al. 1993; Shepherd, 1998). Furthermore, (Tosun and Jenkins, 1996) elongated the above comment by saying that the failure of central planning caused by lack of community involvement as well as mismatch between central planning and local possibilities is detrimental for the tourism market. Thus emphasising on a new concept of sustainable development to empower the planning system for long term success of tourism as it can help to promote and support conservation, regeneration and economic development as well as enhance the quality of life of visitors and host communities (Holden, 2008; Wall and Mathieson, 2006). Furthermore, Gunn and Varr (2002) stated that if tourism is to reach towards better economic impact it must be planned as well towards goals of enhanced visitor satisfaction, community integration, and above all, greater resource protection. Strategic and Its Resources Implication Fig 1 Stage of strategy process Questions Description STRATEGY FORMULATION Mission statement Statement of aims Statement of Values What is our purpose? What kind of organisation do we want to take? A clarification of the purpose of the business Environmental Analysis Where are we now? This involves the gathering and analysis of intelligence on the business environment. E.g. staffing, resources, competitors, stakeholder expectation Objectives Where do we want to be? This involves detailed articulation of aims i.e. setting a target for the organisation to achieve Strategic choice of strategies How are we going to get these? Strategies describe how the objectives are to be achieved Options analysis Are these alternative routes Here you identify options required to be screened in order to choose the best STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION Action How do we turn plans into reality? A specification of the operational activities task required. Monitoring and Control How will we know if we are getting these? Taking corrective action as necessary and reviewing strategy Source: (Johnson Scholes 1997 p. 13) (Catterick 1995 p. 14) Many organisations produce separate mission statements and statements of aims, objectives and strategies. The strategic plan will contain all of these, which is also applicable to all countries embarking on tourism activities. Looking at the meaning of tourism and its activities, the theory and practice of strategic planning for tourism sector in every nation cannot be measured. This is evident on the ground that, it is clear that effective strategic planning and management is a prerequisite for the successful utilization of tourism as an agent of change in every nation. Tourism is seen as transcending the traditional economic sectors and is viewed as an industry which can actively regenerate the small business/entrepreneurial sector with all its flexible and responsiveness to dynamic changes. However, the transformation of a centralised economy, characterised by flexible practices and a low priority for tourism, does involve a change of hearts and minds as much as it is needs outside strategic planning from expertise. No wonder that, Hungary has recognised the advantages that tourism can bring as witnessed by Prime Ministerial statement in 1990 lauding tourism as a potential power-house for the economy. However, Halls (1991a) most persuasive point is that, tourism is seen as an integral part of economic restructuring by exposing the system to both national and international forces and, in so doing, introducing potential foreign investors, encouraging privatisation and reducing the level of bureaucracy and centralisation. All this are made possible via strategic planning approach adopted by a given nation. In the case of tourism, Page Thorn (1997) suggested that a national policy or strategy was required in addition to the RMA, if sustainable tourism goals in New Zealand were to be achieved, since then a national strategy has been produced, reviewed and subsequently updated, emphasising the sustainable development concepts and the desirability of integrating environmental, economic, social and cultural considerations in the long-term management of tourism resources. Tourism Planning Approaches (Countries overview) The changing evolution of tourism, its different political and socioeconomic development environments, and the diverse scientific and technical contributions in the fields related disciplines (urban, regional, environmental planning, etc.) shape different approaches to planning. Such approaches have been the object of interesting systematizations, especially the critical perspectives of Getz (1987), and Tosun and Jenkins (1998) for Third World Countries, which are neither mutually exclusive nor a reflection of a chronological evolution: boosterism, economic, physical-spatial, and community-oriented approaches. To these four could be added two more that are omnipresent in todays literature: a strategic approach and planning for sustainable tourism. Boosterism has been the dominant tradition ever since the emergence of mass tourism. It is based on a favourable, uncritical assessment of tourism that identifies it as intrinsically positive and ignores its potential negative effects on economic, socio cultural, and environmental levels. Halls (2000) expresses his doubts about its consideration as a way of focusing on Getzs contributions, four approaches can be distinguished, and planning since it is precisely characterized by being a tourism implementation and development method that reveals lack of planning. The economic approach conceives tourisms as an instrument that can help achieve certain economic aims. It reinforces tourisms character as an export industry and its potential contribution to growth, regional development, and economic restructuring. Public intervention, in its regulating and promoting role, gives priority to economic purposes over environmental and social ones, although it also attends to all the factors that can jeopardize its economic efficiency: development opportunity costs, selection of the most profitable market segments, control over demand satisfaction, estimate of its economic impacts, etc. However, this approach does not usually analyze how the benefits derived from tourism are distributed socially (Burns 1999). The physical-spatial approach incorporates the territorial dimension with the aim of adequately distributing economic activities, and specifically tourism activities, in space, while also ensuring a rational land use. It is an approach in which both town and country planning and tourism planning coverage as a result of the recognition that its development has an environmental basis. This approach mainly focuses on the preservation of the natural resources that make the industry possible and on the management of the environmental impacts it causes. Among the examples of the physical-spatial approach, Hall (2000) mentions the work by Gunn in the late 70s (Gunn 1994) or Insteps integrated approach (Inskeep 1991). The community oriented approach originated in the late 70s with the numerous works that criticized tourisms negative sociocultural effects (de Kadt 1979; Smith 1977). It is not exclusively confined to the aim of solving and preventing those effects. In fact, it promotes a local tourism development control scheme so that residents are the ones who benefit the most from that development, thus avoiding conflict situations that could put the industrys future viability in danger. Murphys work (1985) undoubted constitutes a basic reference point of an approach revitalized by the need to achieve greater social involvement in planning processes. This circumstance has provided the momentum to undertake, from public instances, bottom-top planning schemes, among them the European initiative leader for rural development. Strategic planning moved from the business context to regional and urban planning in the 80s, and it has a strong influence on economic restructuring schemes for declining places and sectors (Borja and Castells 1997; Vazquez Barquero 1993). This approach has been progressively incorporated into tourism planning and essentially focuses on the search for competitiveness of firms and destinations in a changing, complex environment. In short, it contributes to or reinforces the following distinguishing elements of tourism planning: analysis of the competitive environment as a fundamental element in the definition of the firms or destinations strategy; definition of a wide time scope for planning on the basis of foresight and prospective techniques; stress on social participation and the creation of coordination and cooperation channels among stakeholders; and the rise in value of planning as a process that is permanent, flexible and integrated into management (Ansoff 1988; Borja and Cast ells 1997; Hall 2000; Ivars 2001; Porter 1982). Planning for sustainable tourism is related to the great deal of interest aroused by the development paradigm ever since the celebration of the Rio Summit in 1992. The application of its principles to tourism is especially relevant due to its ambivalence, for it can help to preserve and improve the environment. THE STRATEGIC PLAN AND IMPLIMENTATIONS OF COUNTRIES For example, the strategic plan and implementation program for the county of Szolnok in Hungary highlight many of the problems facing the future development and reorientation of tourism in Central European States. During the construction of the strategic plan, the largest obstacle was identifying tourism facilities that would meet the development needs of the county while minimising the risk of social or environmental damage. The county strategic planner came up with the following planning strategy; Phase 1; Immediate Action Improve Quality of Existing Facilities Improve utilization of existing facilities Improve Economic Benefits from Tourism Improve Performance of existing Entrepreneurs Create environment for future tourism planning Phase 2; Immediate to Medium Term Action Develop Szolnok town as tourist centre Increase Accommodation stock Create new restaurants/cafes in tourist areas Develop new tourism activities Build on existing cultural/heritage attractions Encourage the development of closer linkages between sectors Phase 3; Medium to Long Term Action Wider tourist base-conference business Develop new up-marker tourist facilities Widen the marketing activities Establish strong links with national/international organisations Adopt a fully international computerised reservation system Continue to develop monitoring/regulation and research into tourism activities in the county Develop new 5 year tourism development plans. The result of the strategy plan and its implementation is a county that is now poised to break through into wider tourism markets, armed with promotional materials of high quality, tourism information and maps together with a broad spectrum of products, a network of commercial and organisational links that will enable it to capitalise on the potential market for visitors from within and to Hungary. On the other hand the strategic planners for tourism in Spain came up with what is refer to as FUTURES (Master Competitiveness Plan for Spanish Tourism) (Ministerio de Comercio y Turismo 1994). This plan opened a new state of tourism policy in which the state redefined its role within an institutional discourse that intended to consolidate a system of coordination and cooperation between the different administrations. The FUTURES plan became the catalyst of this change encouraging the design of specific plans for the 1992-1995 period, favoring cooperation through actions financed jointly by the different administrations and fostering the participation of public and private agents. The plan was a reflection of the third generation of tourism policies, according to Fayos classification (1996) where competitiveness turned out to be a key element for tourism management. The FUTURES plan formed a part of the structural adjustment theory (Bote and Marchena 1996) which focused on the adaptation of Spains supply to the structural changes caused by the market that jeopardized the competitiveness of the countrys tourism industry. Finally, this period witnessed the start of the planning model derived from Spains entry into the European Union with the preparation of the 1989-1993 Plan de Desarrollo Regional (Regional Development Plan) for Objective -1 regions and the 1989 1993 Plan Regional de Reconversion Regional y Social (Regional Plan for Regional and Social Restructuring) for Objective 2 regions. These plans made possible the application of Europe Structural Funds to tourism in Spain and implied the definition of a regional development strategy where special attention was paid to tourism, both in those autonomous communities in which it has a strategic role and in others where it was perceived as an emergent industry (Ivars 2001). Essential objectives included taking advantage of tourism growth expectations, the valuation of non-exploited resources, the contribution made by new products to territorial rebalance and finally, the incorporation of tourism into local development strategies both in rural and urban milieus. In the case of Barnette County, Wisconsin, a strategic planning was formulated to improve its tourism industry as for decades tourism has been the main economic revenue for the area. Based on existing data collected from a 1993 assessment, an action plan was implemented and the main issues encountered were lack of organisation, marketing performance, finding and government perceptions form which actions were created to eradicate the problem but it didnt escape failure since estimated budget to find a visitor centre wasnt reach due to lack of fund, marketing guides on the county printed but not distributed, eco-tourism was to be developed using a joint marketing grant but was refused by the state of Wisconsin. Overall, it showed the issues of lack of interest and participation from stakeholders (tourism businesses and government) for further tourism development of Barnett County. Looking at New Zealand as a case study, a county that want to increase the level of its tourism activity and sustainable tourism has become the key of the country to do so, which according to Bramwell Lane 2000; Hall Page, 2006), the success of sustainable tourism planning depends on existing planning and management functions that guide appropriate developments and the ability to respond to pressure on infrastructure and environments that increasing tourism demand creates. The concerns for New Zealand are that the tourism product relies a lot on the natural resources and the image of a clean and green country (Tourism New Zealands marketing campaign) and its has been quite a problematic issue in some areas with regards to conservation and preservation of the environment. Page and Thorn (1997) suggested that a national policy or strategy was required in addition to the RMA (Resource Management Act), if sustainable tourism goals in New Zealand were to be achieved. Based on the previous research undertaken by Page and Thorn in 2001 and 2002, the following issues were encountered such as lack of considering the number of international tourist arrival at national level, lack of planning at national level which Page and Thorn argued that if a national plan was needed in order to achieve a more balance equitable and beneficial patterns of tourism activity and development for destinations and host communities, however a PCE (Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment) report on education for Sustainable development, suggested that the like and dislike and the caring of something lies with the people. What was found from the previous study was the lack of communication and integration between the RMA and the local authorities and resources available from the government was inadequate. However the recent study also reflect the incapacity of the RMA to work together with the national government, since tourism related project were not released but effort has been done to integrate the process of a sustainable development and increase the continuity of collaboration between the public and private sector, but there is still that major gap between strategy and the implementation of the policy formulated in the evolution towards a more sustainable New Zealand. Based on which Page and Thorn (2002) stated that a national plan is required if tourism is to be developed with the target of enhancing the quality of life of its local people and increase environmental protection from the tourism activity. Furthermore, within the tourism planning the goal and objectives set should be achieved to challenge pro-development policy in order for New Zealand to keep up in the term of competitive advantage as a clean, green and sustainable tourism destination. As argued by Edgel, Allen, Smith and Swanson (2008), those destinations, localities and nations that prepare good policies and implement detailed strategic plans will reap the benefits for sustaining their tourism products in the future, which is the indispensable and fundamental basis of New Zealand tourism strategy. Hence leads to betterment of tourism activities in New Zealand. Furthermore, before any implementation, analysis study will be performed through survey of existing data and collection of primary data. The data requirements will include information such as existing tourism profiles, travel patterns, tourist attractions, accommodation and other tourist facilities, land availability, economic and government structure, education and training needs and provisions, environmental indicators, socio-cultural characteristics, investment sources and available capital, relevant legislation and regulation and private sector organisation. (Cooper et al. Tourism Principle and Practices). Ones data has been collected, the issues associated with it will be analysis in terms of assets (infrastructures), market assessment of demand and supply and feasibility study, source of funding and impact of economic, environment and social factors in terms of tourism needs and opportunities and overcome detrimental impact. The result derived from these analysis will help in the formulation of plan and policies such as marketing strategies, human resources management, environmental conservation, economic and tourism development by which implementing and monitoring to ensure the development path and avoid deviation from the actual plan of the nation on tourism sector. The diagram below represents the key stages in the planning process. Fig 2 Key stages in the planning process Source: Tourism principle and practices by Cooper et al. RECOMMENDATION Tourism has been identified as one of the primary industries with the potential to assist local communities in developing economic diversity (Allen et al 1993, Davis Morais, 2004) However, tourism is not a panacea for economic decline. Tourism has the potential to create both positive and negative impacts. Gunn (1994) indicated that, there is no other form of development that has so many far-reaching tentacles as tourism (p.16). For tourism development to be successful, it must be planned and managed responsibly (De Oliveira, 2003; Inskeep, 1991; Martin, 1995). Inskeep, (1991) furthered the concept of responsible management, warning that ill-conceived and poorly planned tourism development can erode the very qualities of the natural and human environment that attract visitors in the first place (p. 460). Thus communities that use or plan to use tourism as an economic development tool to diversify their economy must develop strategic planning policies for the sustainable development of the community. It should be noted that one key to strategic planning for sustainable development of tourism in a community is the inclusion of stakeholders. Without stakeholders support in the community, it is nearly impossible to develop tourism in a sustainable manner. Therefore, a clear understanding of the attitudes and interests of stakeholders is a necessary precursor to the strategic planning and management of sustainable tourism. Strategic planning also emphasise the integration of economic, socio-cultural and environmental, therefore stakeholders should collaborate and take into consideration the preservation of culture and environment while maximising economic growth and returns to community. Jamal and Getz (1995) define these collaborative efforts as a process of joint-decision making among autonomous key stakeholders of an inter-organisational, community tourism domain to resolve planning problems of the domain and/or to manage issues related to the planning and development of the domain. CONCLUSION Tourism exists as a powerful economic force in the development of both community-based and global markets. Today, its activities comprise the worlds largest industry with over three trillion dollars in revenues produced. (Clegg 1994). Accordingly, the success of sustainable strategic planning depends on existing planning and management functions that guides appropriate developments and the ability to respond to pressure on infrastructure and environments that increasing tourism demand creates. As Iskeep, (1991) argues, the special relationship between tourism and the environment, based on a unique dependency on natural and cultural resources, requires a balanced approach to tourism planning and development to maximise the associated benefits and minimise the negative impacts. Therefore, if ill-planned or excessive development is permitted, tourism can damage the special qualities that are essential for sustainable development. Finally, the importance of strategic planning for tourism within a sustainable development context is now acknowledged globally as it was addressed as a specific topic in a review of Agenda 21 in 1997. In 2002, the world summit on sustainable development included a submission on sustainable tourism (chapter IV, paragraph 43) in the Johannesburg plan of implementation, which identified that while tourism has positive effects, uncontrolled (lack of strategic planning) tourism growth can undermine the basis of tourism. However, the extent to which sustainable development ideology is translated into policy and practice requires a strategic planning investigation to uncover the tourism activities that need urgent attention to meet the demand of visitors. This can be in a form of language to be used, create an image to be used, practically assistance and guidance, promotional material and its design, and strategic for the provision of tourism information. Tourism planning has also been seen as a way of extending the life cycle of a destination with a view of exploring new opportunities, adaptation to the current market demand and marketing harmonisation and as well forecast for the future. Therefore, it is on this premise that the researcher believes that the role of strategic planning in tourism development of any nature can not be quantified. Words Count 4365

Modern Global Epidemic Of Obesity

Modern Global Epidemic Of Obesity In his Annual report of 2002, the UK Chief Medical Officer has described it as a health time bomb. Overweight and obese children are likely to stay obese into adulthood with increased risk of associated major chronic diseases. Consequently, socioeconomic disparities observed in obesity supplement socioeconomic inequalities in health (Law et al., 2007). Prevention of childhood obesity therefore is critical. In this paper, the author will examine the complex interaction of social, economic, biological and environmental determinants of health that may explain the recent explosion, shifts in demographic trends of this worldwide problem, and briefly explore lifestyle and behavioural factors that may create particular risks. A discussion about causes, complications and treatment options of childhood obesity will follow. The author will review and analyse determinants and health policy initiatives, critically appraise various global, national and local strategies, initiatives and interventions, which aim to prevent obesity in childhood and examine their link to conventional health promotion models and theories. By critically examining the range of interactions and existing initiatives, the author seeks to propose appropriate interventions to tackle the growing challenge of childhood obesity. Key words: childhood obesity, inequalities, policy, strategy, prevention, health promotion DEFINITION Obesity/Adiposity is defined as a condition characterised by excessive body fat. Body fat can either be stored predominantly around the waist or around the hips. Body Mass Index (BMI) is used to measure obesity and defined as: Bodyweight (Kg) (Keys et al., 1972) Height (m) 2 BMI is useful in clinical practice and epidemiologic studies, but has limitations. Freedman et al. (2004) reported that although BMI is a good measure of fat mass in children with high BMIs, it is not a reliable indicator in thinner children. Two international datasets that are widely used to define overweight and obesity in pre-school children are International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) reference and World Health Organisation (WHO) Child Growth Standards (2006). None is superior to the other and both tend to underestimate or overestimate the prevalence when used on the same population (Monasta et al. 2010). Thresholds for obesity in children in UK (and Scotland) are measured by referring to UK National BMI classification system that uses reference curves based on data from several British studies between 1978 and 1990 (Cole et al, 2000). Children are classified as overweight or obese using the 85th and 95th percentiles as cut points. PREVALENCE, trends and costs Obesity has become an epidemic in many parts of the world and surveys over the last decade have documented the rapidly increasing prevalence of obesity and overweight among children along with rising socioeconomic inequalities (Wang and Lobstein, 2006; Lobstein, Baur and Uauy, 2004). The latest WHO report (Mercedes, Monika and Elaine, 2010) based on surveys from 144 countries estimates that globally, 43 million children (including 35 million in developing countries) are overweight and obese and another 92 million are at risk of overweight. This corresponds to a prevalence increase from 4.2% in 1990 to 6.7% in 2010. In England, 2008 figures showed 16.8% of boys aged 2 to 15, and 15.2% of girls were classed as obese, an increase from 11.1% and 12.2% respectively in 1995 (The Health and Social Care Information Centre, 2010). Amongst Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, only USA and Mexico having higher levels of obesity than Scotland and this is expected to get worse even with current intervention practices. Scottish Govt. report (2010) states that in 2008, 15.1% children were obese and 31.7% were overweight. Amidst this doom and gloom scenario are recent reports (Stamatakis, Wardle and Cole, 2010) showing trends in overweight and obesity prevalence have stabilized or reversed in pre-teens and early teenage years in France, Switzerland and Sweden. In the US too, the obesity epidemic may be stabilising (Ogden et al.,2010) but it is too early to know whether the data do reflect a true plateau (Cali and Caprio, 2008). Similarly, in England, trends in overweight and obesity prevalence have levelled off after 2002 (Stamatakis, Wardle and Cole, 2010); however, socioeconomic inequalities have deepened. Healthcare (direct) costs of obesity are only a fraction of overall (indirect) costs to society (McCormick, 2007) which are due to loss of employment, production levels and premature pensions and deaths. Obesity is responsible for 2-8% of total health costs in Europe and other developed countries (WHO, 2007). Direct costs of obesity in Scotland were about  £175 million in 2007/8 and expected to double by 2030. The indirect costs were much higher (about  £457 million) and expected rise to  £0.9 billion- £3 billion by 2030 (Scottish Govt. report, 2010). In England, recent estimate of direct obesity-related costs to NHS is  £4.2 billion and this may double by 2050. Cost to the wider economy is in the region of  £16 billion, and will rise to  £50 billion per year by 2050 if left unchecked (Department of Health (DH) report, 2010). INEQUALITIES Although no clear relationship between socio-economic status (SES) in early life and childhood obesity (but confirmed a strong relationship with increased fatness in adulthood) was reported by Parsons et al.,(1999); a more recent systematic review by Shrewsbury and Wardle (2008) supports the view that overweight and obesity tend to be more prevalent among socio-economically disadvantaged children in developed countries. Similar patterns are shown in data from England (Stamatakis, Wardle and Cole, 2010; Law, 2007) and Scotland (Scottish Govt. report, 2010). However, trends vary within different ethnic populations as highlighted by Wang and Zhang (2006); a review by Caprio et al. (2008) who studied the influence of race, ethnicity and culture on obesity trends concluded higher prevalence in non-Caucasian populations in US. Although earlier reports (Wang, 2001) revealed that the burden of this problem was mainly in wealthier sections of the population in developing nations, recent reports (Lobstein, Baur and Uauy, 2004; Wang and Lobstein, 2006) indicate that prevalence is rising among the urban poor in these countries, possibly due to their exposure to Westernized diets overlapping with a history of undernutrition. The reasons for the differences in prevalence of childhood obesity among population groups are complex, involving race, ethnicity, genetics, physiology, culture, SES including parental education, environment, as well as interactions among these variables (Law et al.,2007; Caprio and Cali, 2008; Townsend and Ridler, 2009). ETIOPATHOGENESIS and COMPLICATIONS Kirk, Penney and McHugh (2010) argue the complexity of the obesogenic environment, which comprises of personal (e.g. diet and physical activity preferences; disability), physiological (e.g. genetics, race and ethnic, psychological, metabolic) and environmental factors (home, school, and community). Other contributory factors are influences in society (e.g., social and peer influences, food advertisements) and availability of and access to optimal health care. Although genetic factors can have an effect on individual predisposition (Wardle et al., 2008), perinatal and maternal factors explain rapidly rising global prevalence rates. Key perinatal factors for childhood obesity (Wojcik and Mayer-Davis (2010), cited in Freemark, 2010) are maternal overweight before, during and after pregnancy, smoking and bottle-feeding. The mothers dietary habits and level of physical activity are also significant. Decreased physical activity levels associated with sedentary recreation (video and computer games), mechanised transportation (less walking), and increasing urbanization (limited opportunity to physical activity) are all associated with increased risk of obesity (Trost et al. 2001; Gordon-Larsen, McMurray and Popkin, 2000). Children with disability are at a greater risk to develop obesity (Reinehr et al.,2010); factors include health concerns and restricted access to physical activity. Epstein et al. (2008) propose that television viewing encourages weight gain not only by decreasing physical activity, but also by increasing energy intake. In addition, television advertising could adversely affect dietary patterns throughout the day (Lewis and Hill, 1998). Psychosocial factors can influence dietary and physical activity behaviours that define energy balance. Children who suffer from neglect and depression are at increased risk for obesity during childhood and later in life (Johnson GJ et al.,2002; Pine DS et al.,2001).In contrast, social support from parents and others increases participation in physical activity of children and adolescents (Sallis, Prochaska, Taylor, 2000). There is evidence that breast milk in infancy may protect against overweight in childhood (Harder et al.,2005) while intake of foods with high glycemic index, sugary soft drinks and fast foods are associated with increased risk and prevalence of childhood obesity (Ludwig et al.,2001; French, 2001); however, long term trials are needed to corroborate this association. Also, eating out (Zoumas-Morse et al.,2001) appears to be an important contributory life style factor. Excessive fat in the diet is believed to cause weight gain (Jequier, 2001); though, this association is not consistently shown in epidemiological studies (Atkin L-M Davies, 2000; Troiano,2000). Lustig (2006) proposes that the relationship between changes in the environment and neuroendocrinology of human energy balance is complex. The author explains that behaviours of increased caloric intake and decreased energy expenditure are secondary to obligate weight gain that is due to associated hyperinsulinemia, leptin antagonism and interference with normal satiety. Childhood obesity is a multisystem disease with potentially serious complications. Several studies suggest that childhood overweight/obesity is associated with increased risk of mortality in adult life (Gunnell,1998; Dietz,1998). Young-Hyman et al. (2001) have documented cardiovascular risk factors along with insulin resistance in children as young as five years old. The rising prevalence of type 2 diabetes in obese children is worrying in view of the vascular complications (heart disease, stroke, limb amputation, kidney failure, blindness) (Ludwig and Ebbeling,2001). These risks appear to be higher in non-Caucasians (Goran, Ball and Cruz,2000). According to Strauss, (2000) adverse psychosocial effects are more severe in white girls. Treatment Effective intervention is essential because obese children are likely to face substantial health risks as they mature (Cali and Caprio, 2008). Further, as healthcare costs of this problem are rising (Wang and Dietz, 2002); intervention is required to prevent morbidity in adulthood while effective tools for primary prevention are developed. Spear et al. (2007) reviewed the evidence about the treatment options in primary care, community, and tertiary care settings and proposed a comprehensive 4-step approach for weight management. Uli, Sundarajan and Cuttler (2008) support a similar strategy. Several reviews of lifestyle (i.e. dietary, physical activity and/or behavioural therapy) interventions for treating childhood obesity (Oude- Luttikhuis et al.,2008; Wilfley et al., 2007) have concluded that family based combined behavioural and lifestyle interventions can produce significant reduction in overweight in children and adolescents. Although Golan and Crow (2004) suggested that targeting exclusively parents for change was superior to targeting only children for change, behavioural approaches involving both parents and children in the framework of a combined lifestyle intervention appear to be more effective (Wilfley et al. 2007; Epstein 1994; Bronwell, Kelman and Stunkard 1983). Moreover, intensive lifestyle intervention (with daily exercise, mandatory caloric restriction, multiple clinic visits and counselling sessions) appears to be more successful (Nemet at al. 2005) than standard lifestyle intervention (Epstein and Wing 1980). There is no consistent evidence to show that decreasing sedentary behaviour by reducing television viewing is effective in weight reduction (Dennison et al. 2004; Gortmaker et al. 1999). However, limiting TV food advertising to children appears to be a useful cost-effective population-based intervention (Magnus et al. 2009). In obese adolescents, treatment with orlistat or sibutramine as adjunct to lifestyle intervention is prescribed sometimes. However, these drugs can have significant side effects and this approach needs close monitoring and follow-up (Freemark, 2007). Morbidly obese adolescents can benefit from sizeable weight loss following bariatric surgery but with potential serious complications (Lawson et al., 2006; Uli et al.,2008). This necessitates close follow-up and dedication to a specialized dietary regimen (Shen, Dugay and Rajaram, 2004) for successful results. Evidence base of school-based interventions: Systematic reviews of random controlled trials (RCT) by Reilly and McDowell (2003) and Bluford, Sherry and Scanlon (2007) did not find sufficient evidence base for interventions to prevent childhood obesity and recommended further research. In contrast, Thomas et al. (2004) put forward a more positive conclusion in their review. Similarly, Flynn et al. (2006) and Doak et al. (2006) reported favourable outcomes in nearly all trials they reviewed. Interestingly, in an analysis of school-based programs, authors from National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE), UK (2006) indicated that the evidence does not convincingly support the multidisciplinary whole school approach promoted by UK National Healthy Schools Program. Nonetheless, Connelly, Duaso and Butler (2007) in their review of RCTs have supported a decisive role for obligatory provision of aerobic physical activity in schools coupled with nutritional education and skills training. Finally, Kropski, Keckley and Jensens review (2008) concludes that although evidence is limited, schools play an important role in prevention strategies and directing different techniques at boys and girls may have more impact. HEALTH PROMOTION MODELS RELATED TO PREVENTION OF CHILDHOOD OBESITY Knowledge-Attitude-Behaviour model proposes that as knowledge accumulates, changes in attitude are set off resulting in gradual change in behaviour (Baranowski 1999). The model assumes that a person is logical by instinct. However, evidence shows that generally people in a variety of circumstances do not act logically (Shafir and LeBeouf, 2002). A common application of this model to promote change is providing health and nutritional information within school syllabi. Gaining knowledge may help to set goals and boost self-confidence but has not been shown to cause change in behaviour (Schnoll and Zimmermann, 2001) or to change in physical activity behaviour (Rimal, 2001) except perhaps in specific right people (Wang and Biddle 2001). Besides, there is no evidence that interventions based only on education strategies will change behaviour (Contento et al.,1995). According to Behaviour Learning Theory (BLT), when a specific stimulus elicits a desired behaviour, there is increased likelihood of that behaviour recurring if that behaviour is reinforced (Skinner,1938 as cited in Baranowski et al.,2003). A modern version of BLT, the Behavioural Economics model (Epstein and Salaens,1999) suggests behaviour is the result of benefits and costs where benefits are reinforcers. Obese people find food more reinforcing than others do whereas physical activity has greater reinforcing value among non-obese people. In addition, preference for a specific physical activity declines when the distance to that activity increases which reduces the reinforcing value of that activity (Raynor, Coleman and Epstein, 1998). Thus, obese people are more likely to find behaviours that lead to obesity more reinforcing. Saelens and Epstein (1998) applied the model successfully in obtaining increased physical activity. However, application of reinforcers on controlling behaviour is challenging and can be beyond the ability of many parents. The Health Belief Model explains the utility of health services. It has been widely applied to health-related behaviours (Janz, Champion and Strecher, 2002). The model describes health actions through the interaction of sets of beliefs: perceived susceptibility, perceived seriousness perceived benefits and disadvantages and cues to action. A meta-analysis study by Witte and Allan (2000) of fear-based communications revealed that they could induce behavioural change by affecting individuals perception of threat. However, children and adolescents often tend to perceive themselves as invincible, thus the concept of fear, threat and perceived risk and susceptibility are not useful in this age group. HBM may become more relevant if people perceive obesity as a serious threat waiting to happen to them (Baranowski, 2003). Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) proposes (Bandura 1999) that behaviour is a function of continuous mutual interaction between the environment and the person. The theory assumes that people generally strive for positive outcomes and evade negative ones by changing their behaviours by using self-control. Programs based on SCT have resulted in some changes as reported in a review by Sharma (2006) of school-based interventions for preventing childhood obesity where SCT was the most popular intervention tool. However, the theory lacks predictability for understanding childrens behaviour that is related to food and activityit could be that the concepts are too complex for children (Baranowski, Cullen and Baranowski,1999). Furthermore, children may not be expected to or capable of sufficient self-control over their diet and physical activity. Environmental variables like parenting and availability of food and physical equipment may be more beneficial (Cullen et al.,2003). Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB): To explain the relation between attitudes and behaviour (Ajzen and Fishbein,1975 in Baranowski et al.,2003) proposed TRA and said that people are more prone to perform a specific behaviour when they have the intention to perform it. The theory has many limitations one is that presence or absence of choice can influence behaviour e.g. unable to perform the intention to buy healthy food due to its unavailability in the local store. Ajzen and Madden (1986) modified TRA to TPB, which emphasises that perceived behavioural control influences intention. Goding and Koks review (1996) argued that the efficiency of the theory varies between health-related behaviour categories. TPB model has been applied to childhood obesity prevention programs with results showing both good (Andrews, Silk and Eneli, 2010) and mixed (Fila and Smith, 2006) predictability. The Transtheoretical model (T) proposes that health behaviour change progresses through six stages of change: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, and termination and describes 10 processes that enable this change (Prochaska et al.,1992). The model has been successfully applied in addictive disorders but has limitations when applied in the treatment of eating and weight disorders (Wilson and Schlam, 2004). T has been applied to obesity with studies reporting both good (Sarkin et al., 2001) and poor predictability (Macqueen, Brynes and Frost, 2002 in Wilson and Schlam, 2004). The complex etio-pathogenesis of childhood obesity suggests that Social Ecological (SE) Models may generate creative and lasting solutions (Huang and Glass, 2008). The SE model initiated by Bronfenbrenner (1977) and subsequently developed for understanding obesity by Davison and Birch (2001) and Story et al., (2008) proposes that individuals contribute their cognitions, skills and behaviours, lifestyle, biology and demographics, while surrounded in other circles representing the social, physical and macro-level environments to which they are exposed. Swinburn, Egger and Raza (1999) have described the ANGELO (analysis grid for environments linked to obesity) framework which is an ecological model for understanding environments that are obesogenic. Figure 1. The IOTF model is a SE model and describes societal policies and processes with direct and indirect influences on body weight (Kumanyika et al.,2002) as shown here in Figure 1(above). An ecological approach is also the basis of the Canadian model, Child Health Ecological Surveillance System (CHESS). As illustrated in Appendix 4, it demonstrates a local approach to tackle childhood obesity and has possible global implications (Plotnikoff, 2010). Global, regional and national prevention strategies As part of the response to fight the childhood obesity epidemic, WHO (2004) developed the Global Strategy for Diet, Physical Activity and Health (DPAS) and produced a range of tools to assist Member States and stakeholders to implement DPAS. It emphasised that National plans should have achievable short-term and intermediate goals. A schematic model developed for WHO by Sacks, Swinburn and Lawrence (2009) for implementation and monitoring of DPAS provides the basis for a framework for action and explains how supportive environments, policies and programmes can influence behaviour change in a population and have lasting environmental, social, health and economic benefits. The monitoring and evaluation component provides the foundation for promotion, policy development and action. Figure 2: Implementation framework for the Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health. The model emphasises the need of right mix of upstream (socio-ecological) approaches to shape the economic, social and physical (built and natural) environments, midstream ( lifestyle) approaches to directly influence behaviour (reducing energy intake and increasing physical activity), and downstream (health services) approaches to support health services and clinical interventions (Sacks, Swinburn and Lawrence, 2008 in WHO report, 2009). According to WHO (2009), population-based prevention strategies developed in the context of a social determinants-of-health approach and implemented both at the national level and locally in school and community-based programmes will help to change the social norm by encouraging healthy behaviours. Furthermore, transferring the responsibility of tackling health risks from the individual to decision-makers will help to combat associated socio-economic inequalities. In addition, strategies will need coordinated action by multiple stakeholders and effective leadership for success. Surveillance tools for growth assessment recommended by WHO are Child Growth Standards (WHO Reference, 2007) and the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) (WHO, 2009). Key challenges of population based strategies identified by WHO are increasing globalization of food systems that have created economic and social drivers of obesity through changes in food supply and peoples diets, worsening socioeconomic inequalities and tackling obesity in children with physical and/ or mental disabilities. Other important hurdles are poorly designed urbanisation and achieving cost-effectiveness. In this regard, combined approaches that address multiple determinants can improve efficiency of intervention programmes according to a model-based analysis by OECD and WHO (Sassi 2009 in WHO report 2009). The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (WHO 1986) recommends that global prevention strategies should work at multiple settings (e.g. schools, after-school programmes, homes and communities and clinical settings) and use the correct mix of approaches for a given situation along with concern for country- and community-specific factors, such as availability of resources and/or socioeconomic disparities. It emphasises that such strategies must identify and include at-risk groups, set priorities and realistic targets and engage with all stakeholders in a transparent manner. The public should have access to information on partnerships including potential conflicts of interest. Successful implementation and sustenance of such strategies depends on long-term planning, budgeting and identifying cost-effective interventions such as the ACE-Obesity project (Carter et al., 2009). It is also important to dissociate private sector funding from projects that set direction and techniques of such programs by adopting novel funding strategies. The IOTF (2007) have developed in consultation with WHO a set of (Sydney) principles that define the commercial promotions of foods and beverages to children and guide action on changing marketing practices them. The principles aim to ensure a degree of protection for children against obesogenic foods and beverages. The European Union (EU) Member States have adopted the European Charter on Counteracting Obesity (2006), which defines WHO policies and action areas at the local, regional, national and international levels for all interested parties in government and private sectors (e.g. food manufacturers, advertisers and traders) and also organizations of professionals (providers) and consumers (users). Policy strategies emphasise the need to identify and focus on at-risk population groups, set realistic goals, and use efficiently coordinated multiple settings and approaches. They also stress the need for research into all aspects of treatment and prevention methods and develop creative sustainable funding (WHO Europe, 2007). In UK (England), to encourage individual behavioural change, the strategy Healthy Weight, Healthy Lives: A Cross-Government Strategy (DH, 2008) has been developed with emphasis on healthy growth and development of children, promotion of healthier food choices and bringing physical activity into peoples lives by building healthy towns on the EPODE model ( Borys 2006). It also aims to provide personalised advice and support and create incentives to be healthy. Policy drivers include national policy changes (e.g. increased support for monitoring of growth, promotion of breast feeding, bans on unhealthy food advertisements, social marketing campaigns) and changes to the food supply (e.g. development of a healthy food code, front-of-pack labelling, limits on fast-food restaurants near schools and parks, increased supply of fresh fruit and vegetables to stores in deprived areas). Change4Life is the marketing arm of the Governments strategy to stress on prevention through healthier habits from early life (DH, 2009). Other strategies are development of a national physical activity plan in part tied to the 2012 Olympics with the purpose of improving built environments and support more weight management services. The national Government leads the project and provides resources for local authorities, National Health Service (NHS), and community care partnerships. Government agencies and their partners coordinate to raise funds and integrate projects into existing strategies and programmes for cost-effectiveness. Long-term goals include developing a national dialogue on societys response to the epidemic of obesity, provide more support and guidance for PCTs and local authorities and build up skills and capabilities of staff, set aside extra resources and while demonstrating good governance and clear accountability. In Scotland, the Government and Convention of Scottish Local Authorities (COSLA) have developed a Route Map for decision-makers in government to work with their partners, NHS and businesses to develop and deliver lasting solutions to prevent overweight and obesity (Scottish 2010). The Government has targets to reduce the rate of increase in the proportion of children with unhealthy BMI by 2018 but none yet for obesity or weight management. The aim is to reduce energy consumption, increase physical activity, minimise sedentary behaviour, and create positive health behaviour through early life interventions and building healthier work place environments. Policy drivers to manage obesity include HEAT (health, efficiency, access and access target) which measures achievement rates for intervention programmes, Counterweight which is a second-level program to support people who need management of their weight, and Scottish Enhanced Services that provides childhood obesity services in primary and community care settings. To prevent obesity, the Government has developed several initiatives in a framework Lets Make Scotland More Active which is for promoting increased physical activity. Policies to help build healthier lifestyle are the National Food and Drink Policy Recipe for Success, eight Healthy Weight Communities programmes nation-wide, and Seven Smarter Choices Smarter Places to study travel behaviours of communities and their potential to adopt healthier choices. Take Life On is a national social marketing drive that aims to improve diet and fitness of communities and Beyond the School Gate and Scotlands Healthy Weight Outcomes Framework will provide guidance to help create health-promoting communities. In addition, there are several national programs directed to a Greener, Healthier, Smarter, Safer and Stronger Scotland which are likely to have indirect contribution to tackle overweight and obesity. CONCLUSION: The essay emphasises the rapidly increasing burden of childhood obesity with associated population profile changes and increasing social inequalities. It explains the complex multifaceted and interlinked causal pathways that form the obesogenic environment. The author has described community and school-based obesity intervention and prevention programmes and explored the role of research protocols in gathering evidence for such interventions and their usefulness. Various prevention strategies and interventions (singly and in combination) that are in practice and the settings and conditions in which they may be effective are reviewed and compared. Existing global, regional and national prevention and implementation strategies and their need to tackle upstream influences to fight childhood obesity are explained. The present evidence for effective treatment and prevention of childhood obesity is not consistent. It is very difficult to attain significant weight on a long term basis in spite of strenuous efforts it could be that present prescriptions for diet and exercise are not as effective as they need to be; in addition, the adversities in the environment can overwhelm the beneficial effects of techniques used in current intervention techniques. Further research is required to identify realistic options for treatment and best practice procedures for public health policies that are cost-effective, culturally sensitive, deal with upstream influences and address population inequalities. Although numerous school and community based programs are having an impact, there is a need for evidence to evaluate effective social interventions so that social policies direct healthy lifestyle approaches. From the review of available evidence, the author has learnt that policymakers and professiona